Wandering with Jeannie 
How To Take Part In The Long And Glorious Pastime Of Hand Sewing
Hand Sewing 201
The history of medieval sewing, tools and materials, in a brief, digestible format.
Period tools
Period Sewing Needles
A brief history of sewing needles
By definition, a sewing needle is pointy on one end, and has a hole on the other, through which thread is placed. The needle passes through a material, pulling the thread through as well. The thread is left in the material and holds the material in place for the purpose of stability and/or decoration.
The oldest needles ever found were found in the Denisovan Cave, made of bird bone and dated to about 50,000 years old. Other bone needles have been found in China and Russia and date to between 47,000 and 30,000 years old. In North America, bone needles have been found in the Broken Mammoth Site and date to 14,000 years ago. (Gilligan, D’Errico, Doyon, Wang, & Yaroslav, 2024)
As we move through time, other materials were used to make needles including copper, copper alloys, iron, and eventually iron alloys and steel. We see copper needles starting in Egypt between 4,700 and 3,000 years ago.
Iron needles first appear in Germany around the third century BC. Finally, steel was invented in China in the tenth century, and when that combined with blast furnace technology that was developed in Spain, we finally start to see a proliferation of steel needles across Europe. One interesting note is that, despite this, England did not have its own needle making trade until 1639. (Sewing needle, 2024) This is not to say that they weren’t produced at all, just that there wasn’t significant commercial production, or export.
What size were they?
Needles that have been found in Birka (an island near the Baltic Sea in modern day Sweden) measure between 45mm and 50mm in length. There is variation, however, and the longest one is 105mm in length. The width is described as “very small” and therefore used with very fine thread. Those that survived were in needle cases of bone, copper alloy or silver.
In York (located in the central-eastern region of the UK, approximately halfway between London and Edinburgh) at the Anglo-Scandinavian levels, we see needles measuring between 49-59mm length and 0.7-2.2mm in width. This works out to approximately 21 – 11 gauge wire. Mostly these needles are made of iron (Mainman & Rogers, 2000)
How many did someone own?
Most needle cases found in English, French and Swedish finds contain between 2 and 4 needles. Of those, cases containing 2 needles are by far the most common. (Brown, 2015)
What else?
While sharpening things, even very fine bone or wood is fairly basic technology, the tricky part with the development of needles is the hole in the opposite end. The hole must be very small, yet thread must still be able to pass through it. Creating that hole, without breaking the rest of the needle is the difficult part of the process. In the case of metal needles, flattening and drilling the hole cannot result in widening the end too much. Nor can it be allowed to become too sharp on the edges, as both of those qualities will damage the fabric that is being sewn.
The point and the entire needle, including the inside of the hole that the thread passes through must be very smooth so as not to catch or break the sewing thread, or the material being sewn.
Additionally, despite the delicate nature of the needle, they also need to be strong enough to work as intended without breaking. They need to be very thin, yet strong. Thin needles are desirable so that they don’t leave holes in the fabric. Strong needles are necessary so that they don’t bend or break while using them.
Period pins
What were they made from?
Pins in the medieval period were made from many different types of metal, including copper, copper alloy, lead and gold.
What size were they?
Pins were available widely, as the technology to produce them was much simpler than that needed to produce usable needles. The sizes available ranged widely, as pins were used in place of buttons, zippers, Velcro, and anywhere that 2 pieces of cloth need to be held together.
How were they used?
Looped pins were used as clasps for brooches. “Hooked” pins are found in many areas from Rome to Coppergate (near York, UK) They are also found in many time periods from the 7th – 11th century. It is likely they are some kind of fastener. Grave finds place them at the head, waist and knees. Almost all have some kind of decoration on the head of the pin. (Mainman & Rogers, 2000)
Dress pins
Dress pins are meant to be seen, and therefore, many of them have decorative heads (Mainman & Rogers, 2000)
In the portrait below you see the decorative gold pins used to hold Jane Seymore’s gown closed. Portrait by Holbein (Mikhaila & Malcom-Davies, 2006)
In the Typical Tudor, the author states that records show that Mary Tudor purchased pins at a rate of 10,000 at a time. (Mikhaila & Malcom-Davies, 2006)
The advantage of pinning a fitted garment over sewing it closed is that it allows for changes in size (esp due to weight gain/loss much more easily. (Malcolm-Davies & Mikhaila, 2022) Given the regular occurrence of feast and famine cycles, pregnancy, and illness causing significant weight loss, there was a consistent need to adjust the fit of clothing without purchasing new.
While I have not been able to find an approximate ratio of the number of pins found relative to the number of needles found, qualitatively, pins are found much more commonly than needles. This makes sense, given that pins are technologically much easier and cheaper to produce. It also tracks with the evidence that pins were used widely as fasteners.
Scissors / Shears / cutting
Spring type scissors
Spring type scissors were invented in Mesopotamia 3000 – 4000 years ago. They continued to be used through the 16th century (Scissors, 2024) While not widely used today, effective replicas are widely available within reenactor communities, and the retailers who serve them.
Pivot Scissors
The pivot type scussors that we are most familiar with today were invented by the Romans around 100AD. As with needles and pins, scissors were originally made from the available metals of iron or bronze (Scissors, 2024).
Fabric cutting
Scissors may be the biggest unsung hero’s of the sewing world. By the 13th century tailors guilds were formed in Europe to maintain quality control and secrecy over the cutting and sewing of more complicated, fitted garments that were becoming popular. Pg 97 (Østergård, 2004) Well made (and well fitted) garments had to be cut very precisely. Pg 96 (Østergård, 2004)
Well made and well maintained scissors were essential to creating high end clothing, as they allowed the tailors and seamstresses to accurately cut the fabric, as well as to utilize as much of the fabric as possible. With sharp scissors, fabric can be cut very precisely, resulting in exquisite garments that are made to fit the owner precisely. Without extremely sharp and precise cutting implements, fabric might be wasted by being mangled by dull scissors, or cut improperly resulting in loss of the ability to make the commissioned garment.
Also poorly cut, poorly sewn garments are found in the archeological record, indicating that not everyone had access to well-made clothes. Some people certainly had to make due with hand-me-downs, or even attempting to make their own clothes without the benefit of the correct knowledge, tools or materials to do so. Whether these pieces were made due to some unfortunate circumstance, or due to low social or economic status, is sometimes difficult to determine. The upshot is that if you feel that your first (or subsequent) attempts at garb are not what you envisioned, rest assured that they are still potentially period accurate examples of the type of clothes that someone wore.
Where to purchase?
What to look for when purchasing period replica tools
One lesson that I have learned is to always personally inspect your handmade needles prior to purchasing them. I purchased several handmade needles via Etsy, and while the sellers and their reviews claimed that the needles would be lovely to sew with, they will not be used as anything other than demonstration pieces for me. The retailers listed below are ones that I have purchased needles from many times over the last 10 plus years, and I’ve never been disappointed with their work.
Needles
Gaukler Medieval Wares (he has a booth at Pennsic) or https://shop.medievalwares.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=66_99_104&products_id=294
His needles are good for most linen and wool fabrics. He makes and sells medieval replicas. His needles are based on those found in York, UK and based on the specification listed above.
Nuido https://www.nuido.com/product-category/category/tools/needles/
Very thin, very fine handmade steel needles, good for couching threads for embroidery or goldwork. These needles are also excellent for sewing fine silk or gauze. Remember that if you are using a very thin / fine needle, you will also need to use very thin / fine thread.
Period threads
What fiber sewing threads were used?
By the Tudor time frame in England, the main thread used for construction of garments was unbleanched linen. Silk was used where it would show, and as a way to demonstrate wealth. Bleached linen thread was used for garments that were also made of bleached linen. Predominantly, this would be undergarments that would be regularly undergo the harsh washing methods of the time.
One other note is that threads were frequently waxed with beeswax. Treating them this way before using them to sew decreased the friction that the thread experienced by being drawn through the fabric repeatedly. The reduction in this initial wear and tear on the construction thread allowed to to last longer after completing the garment. (pg 41, Malcolm-Davies & Mikhaila, 2022)
Woolen yarn was used for embroidery pg 42 (Malcolm-Davies & Mikhaila, 2022) however, not as frequently used for construction.
Did the preparation of sewing threads differ from the preparation of weaving or embroidery thread?
Probably yes – thread used for construction needs more spin than weaving thread because it needs to support itself. Certainly, in a pinch, threads cold be pulled from a finished piece of fabric and used to sew it together. However, removing those threads would weaken that section of the fabric, and as mentioned, threads for weaving will be supported by all the other threads around them, and don’t need to be spun as tightly. Additionally, sewing thread is often 2 or 3 ply, meaning that 2 to 3 individual threads are plied together to increase the strength of the thread.
Again, a person would have to pull multiple threads from a piece of fabric, re-spin them so that they don’t unravel, and then ply them together. Or they could use a single weaving thread, however, there is a high likelihood that it would break, either while trying to sew with it, or during wear. Therefore, while it’s possible to use pulled threads to sew a garment, it’s most likely that many people would instead choose to use thread made specifically for sewing, rather than attempt to use the wrong material for the job.
One trick that seamstresses and tailers would be familiar with is to use heavier weight (thicker) threads and more backstitch used for weight / load bearing seams. And lighter weight (thinner) threads and more running stitch used for non-load bearing seams (such as long seams on skirts) (Malcolm-Davies & Mikhaila, 2022)
What was the width of sewing thread?
Wool
Heavy wool thread for weaving heavy fulled cloth was 1mm. Average thread for other uses, or types of clothing would be much thinner. Spinners and weavers knew how to create threads for the specific need. Wool could be spun fine enough to create near see through gauze.
Where to purchase? What to look for?
What modern thread dimensions should you look for?
Linen
Linen threads use a a 2 number system. The 1st number indicates how many 300yd skeins make up 1lb by weight. The 2nd number tells you the number of threads that have been plied together. The higher the 1st number the finer the thread. I’ve found that 50/2 to 80/2 work well for construction sewing. Heavier weights can work for certain purposes, such as buttonholes, eyelets, or sewing heavy skirts to a bodice. Lighter weights will work better for very lightweight and/or loosely woven fabrics.
Burnley & Trowbridge Company https://burnleyandtrowbridge.com/collections/threads
A good USA source for hand sewing threads for historical purposes.
The Tudor Tailor https://shop.tudortailor.com/collections/thread
A very good UK based source for hand sewing threads for historical purposes.
Silk (Montgomery, 2022)
Silk uses a 2 number system, called the “nm metric system”. The 1st number indicates the number of meters of thread per kg. The 2nd number tells you the number of threads that are plied together. The higher the 1st # the finer the thread. There are many different types of silk and silk blends to choose from. “Spun silk” is many smaller pieces of silk spun to create thread. It is very strong and beautiful. “Filament silk” is a single silk fiber unwound as 1 piece from the silkworm cocoon.
You will want to try to color match the sewing thread to the fabric (if using for construction). Extremely fine threads are often used for fine embroidery and goldwork.
White Wolf and Phoenix https://whitewolfandphoenix.com/thread.shtml
Primarily thread for weaving, so generally thicker / heavier than what you might want for sewing. Nice selection of colors and types of thread, including fun blends. They sell in smaller amounts, so good if you are working on a smaller project.
Red Fish Dye Works https://www.redfishdyeworks.com/
Red Fish supplies White Wolf and Phoenix. They have an AMAZING array of colors and weights of silk thread. They do sell in larger amounts, so you may find yourself with a lifetime supply of each color that you buy.
Ecclesiastical sewing https://www.ecclesiasticalsewing.com/collections/embroidery-thread-aver-asoie
I have not ordered from them yet, however, they come highly recommended from my friends who do goldwork and embroidery.
Wool (Tritt, 2024)
Wool threads also use a 2 number system. The 1st number indicates the number of threads plied together. The 2nd number tells you the number of meters per kg. Why is the wool system backwards from linen and silk? I don’t know. The higher the second number the finer the yarn / thread. Crewel is a type of wool thread that is typically used for a specific type of embroidery and is generally 2 ply. Tapestry is usually used for tapestry work, generally 4 ply.
Brooklyn Haberdashery https://www.brooklynhaberdashery.com/collections/embroidery-thread
Jagger Spun
https://www.jaggeryarn.com/spun-yarns/the-maine-line-worsted-wool-yarn/
Fabrics
What fabrics were available in period?
Available fabrics were linen, wool, and silk. While fabric made from nettle, hemp and cotton were known, they were not as common. These less common fibers were more likely used by the poorer folk who couldn’t afford the more popular fabrics.
Wool
Wool was available in many different weights available from sheer veil to heavy outerwear. In Viking Greenland, the wool was often left the color of the sheep, rather than dyed any particular color.
Linen
Like wool, Linen was widely available in many different weights for many different uses. Linen was used for everything from the sheerest of veils to heavy buckram for stiffening structured garments. A linen apron from around 1600 had 86 threads in the warp and 79 threads in the weft… per inch pg 28 (Malcolm-Davies & Mikhaila, 2022) Heavier and/or rougher weights more often used by poorer people.
Silk
Silk was imported from the Far East. It was available in many colors, finishes and weights. Silk is also classified by its weaving structure (Mikhaila & Malcom-Davies, 2006) Velvet, Satin, Damask, Grosgrain, Taffeta, Etc. were all available by the 16th century in England.
The Tudor Tailor has completed an inventory of many thousands of garments recorded in various Tudor records. If the color of the garment is specified, they recorded that as well. Colors available by late period included black, red, tawney, white, blue, green, gray, violet, as well as patterns. The specifics colors and patterns that were popular varied by time and place throughout the middle ages. (Malcolm-Davies & Mikhaila, 2022)
Fabric Blends were also known and available. They could be anything from cloth of gold and cloth of silver (restricted to royalty) to linsey-woolsey which only the very lowest sorts used.
In addition to cutting the fabric, tailors required an understanding of the various fabrics with which they worked. They needed to know the various qualities of the fabrics, beyond just what was in fashion, and including what fabrics were capable of doing, intentionally or unintentionally when designing how the fabric would be used to make the garment.
Where to buy? What to look for?
Museums and Extants
There are several ways to attempt to find out what kind of fabrics were available and used in a given place and time. Probably the most obvious strategy is to look at reports of extant pieces. In this case you are looking at museum pieces or archeological finds. With the advent of online museum catalogs you can sometimes get very detailed information about extant garments from them.
Sumptuary Laws
Another common strategy to find out about what fabrics were used is to look at sumptuary laws for the time and place. This is not always available, however, if the powers that be felt the need to make rules, then there was a reason. If there’s a rule that you can / can’t wear certain things, there certainly were people who were breaking the rule.
Shipping and Death Records
A second paperwork based way to determine what fabrics were used and available is to look at shipping records or death records such as wills and bequests. Shipping and purchase records will often record what was purchased, by whom, and for what purpose. An example of this is in royal households were clothing might be part of the employees compensation. Or simply where they tracked things like the number of pins purchased.
Reality
Another reality that we see, generally speaking, across places and times is that plant based fibers were frequently worn next to the skin. So flax/linen is very common for underwear. The advantage of linen is that it isn’t itchy, and it launders fairly well, especially considering the harsh laundry process that existed throughout the middle ages. Typically, linen was worn next to the skin and left natural or bleached. Bleached may confer more “purity” on the wearer. Linen is easier to wash than wool or silk. Wool was used for middle layers, especially in Tudor kirtles. It provides support and some stretch allowing for closely fitted garments to be form fitting without the modern invention of elastic.
Fine wool, silk, and/or highly decorated outer layers were used to show style, wealth and status.
To purchase replicas of period fabrics, the following suppliers are excellent choices. They are also rather pricey.
Tied to History https://www.tiedtohistory.com/
Sartor https://www.sartorbohemia.com/
Burnley & Trowbridge (see above)
“Good enough” fabrics
What is a modern reenactor with a limited budget supposed to do? Where do you make compromises that allow a meeting of the minds between your budget and your goals? Here are some of the considerations that you may want to look at and choose from.
Time and Place
After learning what the period and location correct fibers and fabric weights are, you can match either statistic. Either match the period correct fiber, or match the weight of fabric and don’t worry about the fiber content.
Color Matching
Another option is to worry less about the fiber and weight of the fabric in favor of matching the colors. If the color you want isn’t commercially available, or you want to choose this aspect to recreate, you could dye your fabric with either period correct methods, or commercial dyes.
Pattern Matching (by any means)
Sometimes your desired fabric is a brocade, or a pattern that is no longer produced. In this case you maybe able to approximate the pattern with the use of fabric stamping.
Less Expensive Linens
For 100% linen fabric, many people recommend Fabrics-Store they have many weights and colors of linen available. They also frequently have sales and discount codes that may help to bring the cost to something within your budget. One issue that some people have had is that the fibers that compose the fabric may be lower quality than other sources. I personally have not observed this deficiency, however, it is something to be aware of. https://fabrics-store.com/linen-fabric
Gray Line Linen has a very nice selection of higher quality linens, and it located in New York City. If you can pick up the fabric in person, you will save on shipping charges. Additionally, if you are located on the east coast of the USA, shipping times may be much shorted than for Fabrics-Store, as they are located on the west coast. https://www.graylinelinen.com/
Needle choice
After you have decided on what material you want your needle to be made out of, and the exact dimensions, your next decision will be sharp or dull? Dull needles will push fabric fibers out of the way, not break them. This trait is desirable when the fabric is already loosely woven, or very light weight and delicate.
Sharp needles will pierce fabric, and potentially split the threads that it is composed of. This may be necessary for sewing heavy weight fabrics, densely woven fabrics or multiple layers of fabric.
A further consideration when working with handmade needles is the diameter of the needle. You will want to choose a needle that is suited to your fabric. Thicker, heavier fabrics can tolerate a wider heavier needle, while thin delicate fabrics, such as veils, very light weight linens and silk will require finer needles so to not leave holes in the fabric.
Why do you choose brass vs bone vs steel?
Steel needles would be available from mid to late SCA period. Brass and bone needles would be available throughout the period. Your needle choice will depend partly on what time period you are recreating. Your choice may also depend on what type of fabric and thread you are using, as well as the economic station of your recreation.
As any person sewing would have known, that the width of your needle needs to match the width of your thread. If you are using a fine thread to sew very fine fabric, you will need very fine thread and a very fine needle. If you are sewing something heavier weight, like a sail or outerwear, you will need a heavier weight thread and sturdy needle that will standup to those uses.
So here we see that the project itself will determine the types of needle that will be best suited as well. All of the aspects play together. The project tells you what technology would have been available, as well as what tools and materials are best suited. And as always, the bottom line is that today, just like 1000 years ago, you and those people will use what you have available. If the very best tools and materials are out of your budget, there were people in the middle ages who also had to make due with less than perfect tools and materials. Your experience will mirror theirs, no matter what choice you make.
Stitch choice
When to use which stitch?
Back stitch and its variations are generally used on parts of garments that are subject to stress. Areas that are likely to be subject to stress are places such as shoulder and armscye. as well as side seams in the fitted parts of fitted garments.
Running stitch is generally used on parts of garments that are not subject to stress. These are seams in skirts, seams in non-fitted garments.
Every stitch has a purpose (buttonhole, whip, pad, basting, etc.) There are many stitches and variations to choose from. Each stitch has a purpose. In our period those who were regularly sewing, would know the stitches and what they were best suited for.
What size stitches did they use?
Generally stitches were very small. Small stitches hold together securely, and are less visible. Invisible stitches are like magic. They are the sign of a truly skilled seamstress. They are a sign of wealth, status and access to the amount of money it takes to buy artisans of high skill.
Basting – Why baste?
One stitch in particular is extremely useful, and necessary given the reality of the times. Modernly we have access to cheap aluminum pins. We use them excessively. However, in period, many pins were iron, and iron rusts. Leaving pins in a project for any length of time meant a risk of rust marring the fabric. Basting will hold layers together for whatever period of time you need them held together without risk of damage to the fabric. Additionally, basting threads can be quickly and easily removed when the final seam is finished.
How to baste?
Basting is essentially a very long running stitch. You can use a long needle and any type of well waxed thread. It is a temporary stitch, so it doesn’t necessarily need to be precise. There is no need for backstitch, as many times the basting threads are removed as the garment is sewn together.
References
Brown, T. (2015, 11 05). The Medieval Sewing Kit – Needles. Retrieved from The Journal of Aveline de Ceresbroch: https://normanlady.wordpress.com/2015/11/05/norman-sewing-kit-needles/
Goslee, S. (2024, 06 10). Viking Textile Tools: Metal Needles. Retrieved from Stringpage: https://www.stringpage.com/viking/needles.html
Holbein, the Younger, H. (1536). Jane Seymour, Queen of England. Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien, Wien, Austria.
Mainman, A., & Rogers, N. (2000). Craft, Industry and Everyday Life: Finds From Anglo-Scandinavian York. (P. Addyman, Ed.) The Archeology of York 17/14 , 17, 2533-2534, 2570-2582. doi:2000
Malcolm-Davies, J., & Mikhaila, N. (2022). The Typical Tudor. Lightwater: Fat Goose Press.
Mikhaila, N., & Malcom-Davies, J. (2006). The Tudor Tailor. London: B.T. Batsdord.
Montgomery, N. (2022, 06 25). How to Choose the Right Silk Yarn for Your Next Project. Retrieved from Thread Collective: https://threadcollective.com.au/blogs/crochet/silk-yarn-types
Østergård, E. (2004). Woven into the Earth. Denmark: Aarhus University Press.
Scissors. (2024, 06 14). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scissors#:~:text=After%20citizens%20were%20no%20longer,the%20United%20States%20in%201854.
Sewing needle. (2024, 06 10). Retrieved from Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewing_needle#:~:text=A%20needle%20made%20from%20bird,in%20the%20Eastern%20Karavanke%2C%20Slovenia.
Tritt, M. (2024, 07 23). Yarn Weight Categories. Retrieved from Paca Knits: https://www.pacaknits.com/uploads/5/6/3/0/56309397/yarnweightinfo.pdf
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